Department of Linguistics

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Phonetic (Narrow) Transcription of Australian English

Robert Mannell and Felicity Cox

Note:You should also examine the "Transcription Exercises" pages for examples of transcribed speech.

The transcriptions we have been considering so far are phonemic transcriptions, also known as broad transcriptions because they contain the minimum amount of phonetic detail needed in order to be able to distinguish between words. A narrow transcription contains phonetic detail which can often be predicted by rule. Some of the main "rules" for converting a broad to a narrow transcription are given below. Remember that any narrow, ie. phonetic, transcription must be enclosed in [ ] brackets.

"Rules" for Narrow Transcription

You need to understand clearly that the guidelines to narrow transcription provided below are not really "rules". That is, the uncritical application of these guidelines will not always result in a perfect narrow transcription. Speakers are at liberty to modify their pronunciations in various ways. Speakers differ from each other in their precise pronunciation and the same speaker may vary the pronunciation of the same word in different contexts. Guidelines for transcription are therefore probabilistic in nature in that they suggest the most likely pronunciations. It is up to you to carefully listen to the actual recordings when doing your transcriptions and to record each speaker's actual pronunciation.

Narrow Transcription of /r/

It has been a long convention in English phonetics and phonology for the phoneme /r/ to be represented by the symbol "r". This has simplified the symbolic representation of this phoneme which can be realised in a number of different ways in various English dialects (alveolar, post-alveolar and retroflex approximants are the most common, but alveolar trills and taps as well as uvular trills also occur in some dialects).

In Australian English this phoneme is usually realised as an alveolar or a post-alveolar approximant. If you look at the IPA table of "Pulmonic Consonants" you will see that the same symbol is recommended for both articulations, that is, the symbol [ɹ].

The first thing that you should do when converting a broad transcription of Australian English to a narrow transcription is to convert all instances of /r/ to [ɹ].

Aspiration and release of oral stops

(i) Aspiration

Voiceless oral stops are aspirated before stressed vowels/diphthongs in the same syllable. Some examples:

	/pæɪ/	[pʰæɪ]	pay
	/tiː/	[tʰiː]	tea
	/kɐm/	[kʰɐ̃m]	come

When /l/, /r/, /w/ or /j/ follow the voiceless stop in the same context as above, they are made voiceless by the aspiration. The following should therefore be transcribed with voiceless approximant consonants (note that there is no need to transcribe the aspiration separately).

	/plæɪ/	[pl̥æɪ]	play
	/priːst/	[pɹ̥iːst]	priest
	/pjʉː/	[pj̊ʉː]	pew (nb: diacritics are placed over characters with descenders)
	/trɑe/	[tɹ̥ɑe]	try
	/twɑes/	[tw̥ɑes]	twice
	/tjʉːn/	[tj̊ʉːn]	tune (and more commonly     [tʃʉːn])
	/kliːn/	[kl̥iːn]	clean
	/krɑe/	[kɹ̥ɑe]	cry
	/kjʉːt/	[kj̊ʉːt]	cute

The aspiration rule does not apply when voiceless oral stops follow /s/ (in the same syllable). The following words therefore have unaspirated stops:

	/spɪn/	[spɪn]	spin
	/skɐː/	[skɐː]	scar
	/stænd/	[stæ̃nd]	stand
	/sprɪŋ/	[spɹɪŋ]	spring
	/skwiːk/	[skwiːk]	squeak

Aspiration also occurs in secondary stressed syllables (eg.     [kʰɐːbənæ̃ɪʃəs], carbonaceous) and in many unreduced syllables (     [pʰɔtʰæʃ], potash). However in unstressed syllables it is not really appropriate to speak of aspiration because oral stops are only weakly released in these contexts. It is acceptable therefore, to omit the symbol for aspiration in words such as:

	/pətæɪtəʉ/	[pətʰæɪtəʉ]	potato
	/kəlekt/	[kəlekt]	collect

(ii) Syllable and word-final (VC) oral stops

The comments outlined above, on oral stop aspiration and release, concentrate on initial or CV stops ("CV" means consonant+vowel and indicates that the consonant appears before a vowel within a syllable).

Word and syllable-final oral stops or VC stops ("VC" means vowel+consonant and indicates syllable final consonants) show somewhat different patterns of release to those shown by CV stops. When carrying out a narrow transcription of VC stops we are particularly interested in whether the release of the stop is audible or inaudible. This applies to both voiced and voiceless stops. Voiceless stops with audible release often have clear aspiration, especially when the stop precedes a pause (eg. this token of     "eat" has a clear aspiration). Sometimes the release is less intense but is still audible.

It is customary, when transcribing English to leave audibly released stops unmarked (ie. [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [ɡ]) and to indicate stops without audible release in the following way (ie. [p̚], [b̚], [t̚], [d̚], [k̚], [ɡ̚]). Strong aspiration, as in the word     "eat" can therefore be transcribed as [i:t] but the transcriber has the option of adding an aspiration diacritic when the aspiration in an audible release is deemed strong enough to warrant it (ie. [iːt] or [iːtʰ]).

Here are some examples of pairs of words with and without audible release:-

	released	unreleased
"map"	[mæ̃p]	[mæ̃p̚]
"squeak"	[skwiːk]	[skwiːk̚]
"tired"	[tʰɑeəd̥]	[tʰɑeəd̥̚]
	released	unreleased
"wink"	[wɪŋk]	[wɪŋk̚]
"fade"	[fæɪd̥]	[fæɪd̚]
"jog"	[dʒɔɡ̥]	[dʒɔɡ̚]

Important Note: You will notice that we have made no attempt to transcribe either release or aspiration for VC stops in the transcription practice exercises. For the purpose of this course, you are not required to transcribe release or aspiration for VC stops. Only CV stop aspiration must be appropriately indicated in the assignment exercises set for this course.

Devoicing

(i) Devoicing Voiced Oral Stops and Fricatives

Voiced oral stops and voiced fricatives are usually devoiced in the following contexts:

(a) Before a pause (eg. at the end of a sentence or utterance):

	/tæb/	[tʰæb̥]	tab
	/mæɪz/	[mæ̃ɪz̥]	maze
	/bæɪð/	[bæɪð̥]	bathe

(b) Before an voiceless or devoiced obstruent (ie. before oral stops, affricates or fricatives)

	/tæbz/	[tʰæb̥z̥]	tabs ( /b/ is devoiced before a devoiced /z/ )
	/sed kɐːl/	[sed̥ kʰɐːl]	said Karl ( /d/ is devoiced before /k/ )
	/sed sʉː/	[sed̥ sʉː]	said Sue ( /d/ is devoiced before /s/ )

You should also refer back to the notes on devoiced stops and fricatives in the section on broad transcription. This includes some notes on relevant morphophonological rules (rules for allocating pronunciations to morphemes).

Devoicing of stops and fricatives is a complex phenomenon. Devoicing occurs on a continuum from only slight devoicing of the very end of a stop or fricative to complete devoicing. Strictly speaking, from a phonetic perspective, complete devoicing of a voiced stop or fricative (eg. /z/ to [s]) actually results in a fully voiceless stop or fricative. Phonologically, this could be said to result in the substitution of a voiced phoneme for a voiceless phoneme. But, because devoicing is very often incomplete (and also because of the morphophonological rules governing the pronunciation of the morphemes {-s} and {-ed}) it is convenient to indicate devoicing with the devoicing diacritic (eg. [z̥]). This implies that the transcriber has detected devoicing, but has not made a judgment on whether the devoicing is complete.

Important note: For the purposes of the transcription exercises in this course, you will be expected to mark devoicing with the devoicing diacritic, and not to use the equivalent voiceless symbol.

(ii) Devoicing Approximants Following Voiceless Fricatives

When approximants immediately follow voiceless fricatives they are often, but not always, devoiced. This process is analogous to the effect of stop aspiration on following approximants. Note that this devoicing doesn't always happen. It usually happens when the fricative and approximant are in the same syllable. It also seems to be more likely to happen when the syllable is stressed. This effect is generally blocked by a syllable boundary between the two sounds.

	/frend/	[fɹ̥end̥]	friend
	/swiːt/	[sw̥iːt]	sweet
	/ʃred/	[ʃɹ̥ed̥]	shred

Variation in the place of articulation of /k/ and /ɡ/

(i) Before fronted monophthongs such as /iː/,/ɪ/,/e/,/eː/ and /æ/, diphthongs with fronted first targets such as /æɪ/,/æɔ/ and /ɪə/, as well as the consonants /j/ and /r/, the velar stop consonants /k/ and /ɡ/ are fronted to a pre-velar (between palatal and velar) or even a palatal place of articulation. The pre-velar forms are indicated by placing a + under (or over) the appropriate symbol, ie. [k̟] and [ɡ̟]. The less common palatals are [c] and [ɟ] respectively.

	/kiːn/	[k̟ʰiːn] (or [ciːn])	keen
	/kjʉːt/	[k̟j̊ʉːt] (or [cj̊ʉːt])	cute
	/ɡiːs/	[ɡ̟iːs] (or [ɟiːs])	geese
	/ɡrʉːp/	[ɡ̟ɹʉːp] (or [ɟɹʉːp])	group

(ii) Before back vowels such as /oː/,/ʊ/,/ɔ/,/ɔɪ/, and /ʊə/, as well as the semi-vowel /w/, the velar stop consonants /k/ and /ɡ/ are realised as post-velar stops. The post-velar forms are indicated by placing a "-" under (or over) the appropriate symbol, ie. [ḵ] and [ɡ̄].

	/koːt/	[kʰ̱oːt]	caught
	/kwɑet/	[ḵw̥ɑet]	quite
	/ɡoːdiː/	[ɡ̄oːdiː]	gaudy

Note that if consonants intervene between /k/ or /ɡ/ and the following vowel then the effect of that vowel is neutralised and the place of articulation is not changed. However, if /w/, /j/ or /r/ occur after /k/ or /ɡ/ then they affect the place of articulation of these velar stops, not the vowel.

Clear and Dark realisations of /l/

(i) Before vowels, diphthongs and /j/, /l/ is realised as [l] (clear 'l'). [ɫ] is also usually found at the end of a word even when the following word starts with a vowel. This articulation clearly marks the /l/ as belonging to the end of the first word rather than the beginning of the second word. The following words should be transcribed as follows:

	/liːf/	[liːf]	leaf
	/loː/	[loː]	law
	/blɪŋk/	[blɪŋk]	blink
	/væljʉː/	[væljʉː]	value
	/mɪljən/	[mɪljən]	million
	/fiːlɪŋ/	[fiːlɪŋ]	feeling
	/selæɔt/	[selæɔt]	sellout

(ii) Before consonants (except /j/) or a pause (eg. the end of a sentence or utterance), the allophone is dark (velarised), ie. [ɫ], (this is an "l" with a "~" through it ):

	/fiːl/	[fiːɫ]	feel
	/fiːld/	[fiːɫd̥]	field
	/fiːl fɑen/	[fiːɫ fɑen]	feel fine

(iii) Syllabic realisations of /l/ are usually dark:

	/tæɪbl/	[tʰæɪbɫ̩]	table
	/mɐdl/	[mɐ̃dɫ̩]	muddle

(iv) Note however, that the choice of clear or dark /l/ is often dialect specific. For example, many Australians do use dark /l/ before /j/ in words like "value" /væljʉː/ and "million" /mɪljən/ and also before morpheme boundaries like "control-able" or "fol-ate". Some even use it in words like "slowly" and it is almost obligatory in "holy".

Assimilation of alveolars

The following assimilations should be noted. Alveolar assimilation is extremely common, but exceptions to these rules do occur, even in casual connected speech. Assimilations are much less likely to occur in careful speech and particularly when articulating isolated words carefully.

(i) Labiodental nasals before labiodentals

	/ɪnfənt/	[ɪɱfənt]	infant
	/ɪnvɑet/	[ɪɱvɑet]	invite

(ii) Dental nasal and oral stops before dentals

	/æɪtθ/	[æɪt̪θ]	eighth
	/tenθ/	[tʰen̪θ]	tenth

(iii) Post-alveolar oral and nasal stops before /r/

	/trɑe/	[ṯɹ̥ɑe]	try
	/drɑe/	[ḏɹɑe]	dry
	/ənrəʉl/	[əṉɹɔoɫ]	enrol

Syllabic consonants

All syllabic consonants must be marked with a [x̩] diacritic in a narrow transcription.

	/mɪdl/	[mɪdɫ̩]	middle
	/sɐdn/	[sɐdn̩]	sudden

Allophones of /j/

Other than the voiceless realisation of /j/, it is not necessary to mark any special allophones of /j/. However, /h/ and /j/ often coalesce to form a voiceless palatal fricative [ç] before /ʉː/ eg:

/hjʉːdʒ/

[çʉːdʒ]

huge

Nasalisation

Nasalisation is particularly likely to occur when a low vowel such as /æ/, /ɐː/, /ɐ/ or /ɔ/ occurs next to a nasal consonant. Nasalisation can occur for any vowel adjacent to a nasal consonant but it tends to be stronger and more audible for low vowels. Note that if a diphthong has a low target (eg. both targets of /æɔ/ or the first target of /ɑe/) then that target will also tend to be nasalised next to a nasal consonant.

	/ænt/	[æ̃nt]	ant
	/mɐːtən/	[mɐ̃ːtən]	Martin
	/mɑet/	[mɑ̃et]	might

Important note: You will be penalised if you omit the nasalisation diacritic for any of the vowels listed above, when they are immediately adjacent to a nasal stop (ie. without an intervening pause). You may add nasalisation diacritics to the other vowels in this context, but you will not be penalised if you omit them.

The Narrow Transcription of General Australian English vowels

In the module of this course entitled "Impressionistic Phonetic Studies of Australian English", the pronunciation of Australian English (AE) vowels is discussed. From that discussion, it should be clear that AE pronunciation of vowels is quite uniform from speaker to speaker except for the pronunciation of a small sub-set of vowels. Speakers of AE have sometimes been divided into three categories, "Broad", "General" and "Cultivated". The pronunciation of six vowels is particularly important for the determination of a speaker's membership of one of these sub-dialect categories. Those vowels are /iː/, /ʉː/, /æɪ/, /əʉ/, /ɑe/, /æɔ/. The system of phonemic transcription of Australian vowels, developed by Clark (1988) and Harrington, Cox and Evans (1997) is based on the pronunciation of the vowels of AE by the statistically "average" speaker of "General" AE. These phonemic symbols will very often be close to the actual pronunciation of a speaker of General AE and so could be also used (with caution) for the narrow transcription of the vowels of such speakers. These symbols are not, however, adequate for the narrow transcription of some vowels of many speakers at the two extreme ends of the AE, that is "Broad" and "Cultivated" AE. We should also expect a greater degree of deviation in vowel pronunciation from our chosen phonemic symbols when dealing with "minority" Englishes in Australia (eg. some indigenous or migrant forms). Most certainly, these AE phonemic symbols would be very poor choices indeed for the narrow transcription of other national Englishes (eg. British, American, Singaporean, etc.). An examination of the American English vowel symbols used in the book by Ladefoged will quickly confuse novice students of phonetics unless they realise that different vowel transcription systems are appropriate for different dialects of English.

The student is referred to the topic "Phonemic (Broad) Transcription of Australian English" which outlines the system of broad transcription of Australian English. The two speakers recorded for the present tutorial are both speakers of General Australian English and most of the time the phonemic vowel symbols will be adequate for the narrow transcription of their speech but there will be deviations from that pattern and students are encouraged to bear in mind the pronunciations of the cardinal vowels dealt with in the tutorial module on ear training.

Allophones of /əʉ/

A common deviation of vowel pronunciation from the pronunciation implied by the broad transcription symbols occurs when /əʉ/ is followed by a "dark" /l/ ([ɫ]). In this case, the vowel has a distinctive allophone sounds something like [ɔo]. In most other contexts it is likely to sound more like [əʉ]. (see, for example, Transcription Practice Exercise 1, token 4, "role")

Allophones of /eə/

Another variation in vowel pronunciation can occur for the vowel phoneme /eː/ which can, for some speakers, sometimes be realised as [eə] but which is more often realised as [eː] before an inserted post-vocalic /r/. (TPE = "Transcription Practice Exercise")

eg. /keː/ = [kʰeə] or [kʰeː] (see TPE 4:36 for [eə] and TPE 1:48 for [eː])

but /keːrɪŋ/ = [kʰeːɹɪŋ] (see TPE 2:3)

Student Guide to the Narrow Transcription of Australian Vowels

For this course, students should simply use the Harrington, Cox and Evans vowel symbols utilised for the phonemes, but should additionally be very careful to distinguish the allophones for the two vowels listed above and to also carefully indicate vowel nasality. Differences between Broad, General and Cultivated Australian English can be disregarded for the purpose of these exercises.